Executive Summary

ANTHC [Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium], 2024: Unmet needs of environmentally threatened Alaska native villages: Assessment and recommendations. Available at: https://anthc.org/resource/unmet-needs-report/.

Smith, S. L., V. E. Romanovsky, K. Isaksen, K. E. Nyland, N. I. Shiklomanov, D. A. Streletskiy, and H. H. Christiansen, 2025: Permafrost [in “State of the Climate in 2024”]. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 106(8), S338-S341, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-25-0104.1.

Thoman, R., 2025: Summer 2025 northern North America wildfire: Above median, but less than 2022-2024. Alaska and Arctic Climate Newsletter, https://alaskaclimate.substack.com/p/summer-2025-northern-north-america.

York, A., U. S. Bhatt, E. Gargulinski, Z. Grabinski, P. Jain, A. Soja, R. L. Thoman, and R. Ziel, 2020: Wildland fire in high northern latitudes. Arctic Report Card 2020, R. L. Thoman, J. Richter-Menge, and M. L. Druckenmiller, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/2gef-3964.

Surface Air Temperature

Ballinger, T. J., and Coauthors, 2025: Surface air temperature. [in “State of the Climate in 2024”]. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 106(8), S311-S313, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-25-0104.1.

Cohen, J., and Coauthors, 2020: Divergent consensuses on Arctic amplification influence on midlatitude severe winter weather. Nat. Climate Change, 10, 20-29, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0662-y.

Grinde, L., J. Mamen, K. Tunheim, and S. Aaboe, 2025: Været i Norge – Klimatologisk månedsoversikt februar 2025 [The weather in Norway – Climatological monthly overview February 2025]. MET info, 02-2025, Norwegian Meteorological Institute, https://www.met.no/publikasjoner/met-info.

Hanna, E., T. E. Cropper, R. J. Hall, and J. Cappelen, 2016: Greenland Blocking Index 1851-2015: a regional climate change signal. Int. J. Climatol., 36(15), 4847-4861. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4673.

Hansen, J., R. Ruedy, M. Sato, and K. Lo, 2010: Global surface temperature change. Rev. Geophys., 48, RG4004, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010RG000345.

Hersbach, H., and Coauthors, 2020: The ERA5 global reanalysis. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999-2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803.

Jain, P., and Coauthors, 2024: Drivers and impacts of the record-breaking 2023 wildfire season in Canada. Nat. Commun., 15, 6764, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51154-7.

Lenssen, N. J. L., G. A. Schmidt, J. E. Hansen, M. J. Menne, A. Persin, R. Ruedy, and D. Zyss, 2019: Improvements in the GISTEMP uncertainty model. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 6307-6326, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029522.

Moon, T. A., and Coauthors, 2019: The expanding footprint of rapid Arctic change. Earth’s Future, 7(3), 212-218, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018EF001088.

Soriot, C., J. Stroeve, and A. Crawford, 2025: Record early sea ice loss in southeastern Hudson Bay in Spring 2024. Geophys. Res. Lett., 52(4), e2024GL112584, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024GL112584.

Sweeney, A. J., Q. Fu, S. Po-Chedley, H. Wang, and M. Wang, 2023: Internal variability increased Arctic amplification during 1980-2022. Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL106060, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL106060.

Thoman, R., 2025: Arctic summer 2025 climate summary. https://alaskaclimate.substack.com/p/arctic-summer-2025-climate-summary.

Walsh, J. E., T. J. Ballinger, E. S. Euskirchen, E. Hanna, J. Mård, J. E. Overland, H. Tangen, and T. Vihma, 2020: Extreme weather and climate events in northern areas: A review. Earth Sci. Rev., 209, 103324, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103324.

York, A., U. S. Bhatt, E. Gargulinski, Z. Grabinski, P. Jain,, A. Soja, R. L. Thoman, and R. Ziel, 2020: Wildland fire in high northern latitudes. Arctic Report Card 2020, R. L. Thoman, J. Richter-Menge, and M. L. Druckenmiller, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/2gef-3964.

Zhou, W., L. R. Leung, and J. Lu, 2024: Steady threefold Arctic amplification of externally forced warming masked by natural variability. Nat. Geosci., 17, 508-515, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01441-1.

Precipitation

Becker, A., P. Finger, A. Meyer-Christoffer, B. Rudolf , K. Schamm, U. Schneider, and M. Ziese, 2013: A description of the global land-surface precipitation data products of the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre with sample applications including centennial (trend) analysis from 1901-present. Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 5, 71-99, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-5-71-2013.

Box, J. E., and Coauthors, 2021: Recent developments in Arctic climate observation indicators. AMAP Arctic Climate Change Update 2021: Key Trends and Impacts, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Tromso, Norway, 7-29, https://www.amap.no/documents/doc/amap-arctic-climate-change-update-2021-key-trends-and-impacts/3594.

Christensen, T. R., and Coauthors, 2021: Multiple ecosystem effects of extreme weather events in the Arctic. Ecosystems, 24, 122-136, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-020-00507-6.

Dou, T. F., S. F. Pan, R. Bintanja, and C. D. Xiao, 2022: More frequent, intense, and extensive rainfall events in a strongly warming Arctic. Earth’s Future, 10(10), e2021EF002378, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021ef002378.

Fox, S., A. Crawford, M. McCrystall, J. Stroeve, J. Lukovich, N. Loeb, J. Natanine, and M. Serreze, 2023: Extreme Arctic weather and community impacts in Nunavut: A case study of one winter’s storms and lessons for local climate change preparedness. Weather Clim., Soc., 15, 881-892, https://doi.org/10.1175/wcas-d-23-0006.1.

Hansen, B. B., and Coauthors, 2014: Warmer and wetter winters: characteristics and implications of an extreme weather event in the High Arctic. Environ. Res. Lett., 9, 114021, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/11/114021.

Hersbach, H., and Coauthors, 2020: The ERA5 global reanalysis. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999-2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803.

Loeb, N. A., A. Crawford, J. C. Stroeve, and J. Hanesiak, 2022: Extreme precipitation in the eastern Canadian Arctic and Greenland: An evaluation of atmospheric reanalyses. Front. Env. Sci., 10, 866929, https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.866929.

Schneider, U., P. Finger, E. Rustemeier, M. Ziese, and S. Hänsel, 2022: Global precipitation analysis products of the GPCC, Global Precipitation Climatology Centre, https://opendata.dwd.de/climate_environment/GPCC/PDF/GPCC_intro_products_v2022.pdf.

Serreze, M. C., and Coauthors, 2021: Arctic rain on snow events: bridging observations to understand environmental and livelihood impacts. Environ. Res. Lett., 16(10), 105009, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac269b.

Walsh, J. E., S. Bigalke, S. A. McAfee, R. Lader, M. C. Serreze, and T. J. Ballinger, 2022: Precipitation. Arctic Report Card 2022, M. L. Druckenmiller, R. L. Thoman, and T. A. Moon, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/n07s-3s69.

Ye, H., D. Yang, A. Behrangi, S. L. Stuefer, X. Pan, E. Mekis, Y. Dibike, and J. E. Walsh, 2021: Precipitation characteristics and changes. Arctic Hydrology, Permafrost and Ecosystems (D. Yang and D. L. Kane, Eds.), Springer Nature Switzerland, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50930-9_2.

Yu, L., and S. Zhong, 2021: Trends in Arctic seasonal and extreme precipitation in recent decades. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 145, 1541-1559, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-021-03717-7.

Terrestrial Snow Cover

Brown, R., and Coauthors, 2017: Arctic terrestrial snow cover. Snow, Water, Ice and Permafrost in the Arctic (SWIPA) 2017. pp. 25-64. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway.

Decharme, B., and A. Barbu, 2024: Crocus-ERA5 daily snow product over the Northern Hemisphere at 0.25° resolution (Version 2023), Zenodo, accessed 29 September 2025, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10943718.

Forster, P., and Coauthors, 2021: The earth’s energy budget, climate feedbacks, and climate sensitivity, climate change. In Climate change 2021 – The physical science basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, V. Masson-Delmotte and others, Eds., Cambridge University Press, 923-2054, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.009.

GMAO (Global Modeling and Assimilation Office), 2015: MERRA-2tavg1_2d_lnd_Nx:2d, 1-Hourly, Time-Averaged, Single-Level, Assimilation, Land Surface Diagnostics V5.12.4, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GESDISC), accessed: 13 August 2025, https://doi.org/10.5067/RKPHT8KC1Y1T.

Goodrich, L. E., 1982: The influence of snow cover on the ground thermal regime. Can. Geotech. J., 19(4), 421-432, https://doi.org/10.1139/t82-047.

Jones, H. G., J. W. Pomeroy, D. A. Walker, and R. W. Hoham, 2011: Snow ecology: An interdisciplinary examination of snow-covered ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, https://books.google.ca/books?id=7LhicgAACAAJ.

Luojus, K. M., and Coauthors, 2024: ESA Snow Climate Change Initiative (Snow_cci): Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) level 3C daily global climate research data package (CRDP) (1979-2022), version 3.1. NERC EDS Centre for Environmental Data Analysis, accessed: 13 August 2025, https://doi.org/10.5285/9d9bfc488ec54b1297eca2c9662f9c81.

Meredith, M., and Coauthors, 2019: Polar Regions. IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, H. -O. Pörtner, and co-editors, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 203-320, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.005.

Muñoz Sabater, J., 2019: ERA5-Land hourly data from 1950 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS), accessed 18 July 2025, https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.e2161bac.

Robinson, D. A., T. W. Estilow, and NOAA CDR Program, 2012: NOAA Climate Data Record (CDR) of Northern Hemisphere (NH) Snow Cover Extent (SCE), Version 1 [r01]. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, accessed: 12 August 2025, https://doi.org/10.7289/V5N014G9.

U.S. National Ice Center, 2008: IMS Daily Northern Hemisphere Snow and Ice Analysis at 1 km, 4 km, and 24 km Resolutions, Version 1. NSIDC: National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed: 13 August 2025, https://doi.org/10.7265/N52R3PMC.

Greenland Ice Sheet

Colgan, W., and Coauthors, 2015: Hybrid glacier Inventory, Gravimetry and Altimetry (HIGA) mass balance product for Greenland and the Canadian Arctic. Remote Sens. Environ., 168, 24-39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.06.016.

Fausto, R. S., and Coauthors, 2021: Programme for Monitoring of the Greenland Ice Sheet (PROMICE) automatic weather station data. Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13(8), 3819-3845, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3819-2021.

Hendry, K. R., and Coauthors, 2019: The biogeochemical impact of glacial meltwater from Southwest Greenland. Prog. Oceanogr., 176, 102126, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2019.102126.

Keegan, K. M., M. R. Albert, J. R. McConnell, and I. Baker, 2014: Climate change and forest fires synergistically drive widespread melt events of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 111(22), 7964-7967, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1405397111.

Loomis, B. D., S. B. Luthcke, and T. J. Sabaka, 2019: Regularization and error characterization of GRACE mascons. J. Geodesy, 93, 1381-1398, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-019-01252-y.

Mankoff, K. D., A. Solgaard, W. Colgan, A. P. Ahlstrøm, S. A. Khan, and R. S. Fausto, 2020: Greenland ice sheet solid ice discharge from 1986 through March 2020. Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12(2), 1367-1383, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-1367-2020.

Medley, B., T. A. Neumann, H. J. Zwally, B. E. Smith, and C. M. Stevens, 2022: Simulations of firn processes over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets: 1980-2021. Cryosphere, 16, 3971-4011, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-3971-2022.

Morlighem, M., and Coauthors, 2017: BedMachine v3: Complete bed topography and ocean bathymetry mapping of Greenland from multibeam echo sounding combined with mass conservation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 44(21), 11051-11061, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074954.

Mote, T. L., 2007: Greenland surface melt trends 1973-2007: Evidence of a large increase in 2007. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34(22), L22507, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031976.

Mouginot, J., and Coauthors, 2019: Forty-six years of Greenland Ice Sheet mass balance from 1972 to 2018. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 116(19), 9239-9244, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1904242116.

Smith, B., 2023: Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) for Land-ice DEM (ATL14) and Land-ice height change (ATL15). NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, https://nsidc.org/sites/default/files/documents/technical-reference/icesat2_atl14_atl15_atbd_v003.pdf.

Smith, B., S. Dickinson, B. P. Jelley, T. A. Neumann, D. Hancock, J. Lee, and K. Harbeck, 2023: ATLAS/ICESat-2 L3B Slope-Corrected Land Ice Height Time Series, Version 6 [Data Set]. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed: 25 August 2025, https://doi.org/10.5067/ATLAS/ATL11.006.

van Westen, R. M., M. Kliphuis, and H. A. Dijkstra, 2024: Physics-based early warning signal shows that AMOC is on tipping course. Sci. Adv., 10(6), eadk1189, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adk1189.

Wahr, J., M. Molenaar, and F. Bryan, 1998: Time variability of the Earth’s gravity field: Hydrological and oceanic effects and their possible detection using GRACE. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 103(B12), 30205-30229, https://doi.org/10.1029/98JB02844.

Watkins, M. M., D. N. Wiese, D. N. Yuan, C. Boening, and F. W. Landerer, 2015: Improved methods for observing Earth’s time variable mass distribution with GRACE using spherical cap mascons. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 120(4), 2648–2671, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JB011547.

Sea Ice

Bliss, A. C., 2023: Passive microwave Arctic ice melt onset dates from the advanced horizontal range algorithm 1979-2022. Sci. Data, 10, 857, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-023-02760-5.

Cavalieri, D. J., C. L. Parkinson, P. Gloersen, and H. J. Zwally, 1996 (updated yearly): Sea Ice Concentrations from Nimbus-7 SMMR and DMSP SSM/I-SSMIS Passive Microwave Data, Version 1. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed 1 September 2025, https://doi.org/10.5067/8GQ8LZQVL0VL.

Drobot, S. D., and M. R. Anderson, 2001: An improved method for determining snowmelt onset dates over Arctic sea ice using Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer and Special Sensor Microwave/Imager data. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D20), 24033-24049, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD000171.

European Space Agency, 2023: SMOS-CryoSat L4 Sea Ice Thickness, Version 206. ESA Earth Online, accessed 1 September 2025, https://doi.org/10.57780/sm1-4f787c3.

Fetterer, F., K. Knowles, W. N. Meier, M. Savoie, A. K. Windnagel, and T. Stafford 2025 (updated daily): Sea Ice Index, Version 4. NSIDC: National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed 2 October 2025, https://doi.org/10.7265/a98x-0f50.

George, J. C., S. E. Moore, and J. G. M. Thewissen, 2020: Bowhead whales: recent insights into their biology, status and resilience. Arctic Report Card 2020, R. L. Thoman, J. Richter-Menge, and M. L. Druckenmiller, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/cppm-n265.

Lavergne, T., and Coauthors, 2019: Version 2 of the EUMETSAT OSI SAF and ESA CCI sea-ice concentration climate data records. Cryosphere, 13, 49-78, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-49-2019.

Ricker, R., S. Hendricks, L. Kaleschke, X. Tian-Kunze, J. King, and C. Haas, 2017: A weekly Arctic sea-ice thickness data record from merged CryoSat-2 and SMOS satellite data. Cryosphere, 11, 1607-1623, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1607-2017.

Stewart, J. S., W. N. Meier, R. Marowitz, D. J. Scott, and H. Wilcox, 2025: AMSR2 Daily Polar Gridded Sea Ice Concentrations, Version 2. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed 2 October 2025, https://doi.org/10.5067/W13AO54SS7CW.

Tschudi, M., W. N. Meier, J. S. Stewart, C. Fowler, and J. Maslanik, 2019a: EASE-Grid Sea Ice Age, Version 4. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed 5 September 2025, https://doi.org/10.5067/UTAV7490FEPB.

Tschudi, M., W. N. Meier, and J. S. Stewart, 2019b: Quicklook Arctic Weekly EASE-Grid Sea Ice Age, Version 1. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed 2 October 2025, https://doi.org/10.5067/2XXGZY3DUGNQ.

Zhao, P., Y. Li, and Y. Zhang, 2024: Ships are projected to navigate whole year-round along the North Sea route by 2100. Commun. Earth Environ., 5, 407, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01557-7.

Sea Surface Temperature

Banzon, V., T. M. Smith, M. Steele, B. Huang, and H. -M. Zhang, 2020: Improved estimation of proxy sea surface temperature in the Arctic. J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 37, 341-349, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-19-0177.1.

Gou, R., K. K. E. Wolf, C. J. M. Hoppe, L. Wu, and G. Lohmann, 2025: The changing nature of future Arctic marine heatwaves and its potential impacts on the ecosystem. Nat. Climate Change, 15, 162-170, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02224-7.

Huang, B., C. Liu, V. Banzon, E. Freeman, G. Graham, B. Hankins, T. Smith, and H. -M. Zhang, 2021a: Improvements of the Daily Optimum Interpolation Sea Surface Temperature (DOISST) Version 2.1. J. Climate, 34(8), 2923-2939, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0166.1.

Huang, B., C. Liu, E. Freeman, G. Graham, T. Smith, and H. -M. Zhang, 2021b: Assessment and Intercomparison of NOAA Daily Optimum Interpolation Sea Surface Temperature (DOISST) Version 2.1. J. Climate, 34(18), 7421-7441, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-21-0001.1.

Meier, W. N., F. Fetterer, A. K. Windnagel, and J. S. Stewart, 2021a: NOAA/NSIDC Climate Data Record of Passive Microwave Sea Ice Concentration, Version 4. [1982-2021]. NSIDC: National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed 4 September 2025, https://doi.org/10.7265/efmz-2t65.

Meier, W. N., F. Fetterer, A. K. Windnagel, and J. S. Stewart, 2021b: Near-Real-Time NOAA/NSIDC Climate Data Record of Passive Microwave Sea Ice Concentration, Version 2. [1982-2021], NSIDC: National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, CO, USA, accessed 4 September 2025, https://doi.org/10.7265/tgam-yv28.

Mercator Ocean International, 2025: Ocean Temperature Bulletin – August 2025. European Union, Copernicus Marine Service. https://www.mercator-ocean.eu/bulletin/ocean-temperature-bulletin-august-2025/, accessed 17 September 2025.

NOAA, 2024: Optimum Interpolation Sea Surface Temperature (OISST) high resolution dataset, version 2.1. NOAA/PSL, accessed 4 September 2025, https://psl.noaa.gov/data/gridded/data.noaa.oisst.v2.highres.html.

Peng, G., W. N. Meier, D. J. Scott, and M. H. Savoie, 2013: A long-term and reproducible passive microwave sea ice concentration data record for climate studies and monitoring. Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 5, 311-318, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-5-311-2013.

Quakenbush, L., A. Bryan, J. Crawford, J. Olnes, and R. Stimmelmayr, 2024: Ice seals of Alaska. Arctic Report Card 2024, T. A. Moon, M. L. Druckenmiller, and R. L. Thoman, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/4488-8843.

Reynolds, R. W., N. A. Rayner, T. M. Smith, D. C. Stokes, and W. Wang, 2002: An improved in situ and satellite SST analysis for climate. J. Climate, 15, 1609-1625, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<1609:AIISAS>2.0.CO;2.

Reynolds, R. W., T. M. Smith, C. Liu, D. B. Chelton, K. S. Casey, and M. G. Schlax, 2007: Daily high-resolution-blended analyses for sea surface temperature. J. Climate, 20, 5473-5496, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JCLI1824.1.

Schoen, E. R., K. G. Howard, J. M. Murphy, D. E. Schindler, P. A. H. Westley, and V. R. von Biela, 2023: Divergent responses of western Alaska salmon to a changing climate. Arctic Report Card 2023, R. L. Thoman, T. A. Moon, and M. L. Druckenmiller, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/f2hv-5581.

Timmermans, M. -L., and Z. M. Labe, 2023: Sea surface temperature. Arctic Report Card 2023, R. L. Thoman, T. A. Moon, and M. L. Druckenmiller, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/e8jc-f342.

Arctic Ocean Primary Productivity: The Response of Marine Algae to Climate Warming and Sea Ice Decline

Anderson, D. M., and Coauthors, 2022: Harmful algal blooms in the Alaskan Arctic: An emerging threat as the ocean warms. Oceanography, 35(3/4), 130-139, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2022.121.

Ardyna, M., and Coauthors, 2020: Under-ice phytoplankton blooms: Shedding light on the “invisible” part of Arctic primary production. Front. Mar. Sci., 7, 608032, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.608032.

Behrenfeld, M. J., and P. G. Falkowski, 1997: Photosynthetic rates derived from satellite-based chlorophyll concentration. Limnol. Oceanogr., 42(1), 1-20, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1997.42.1.0001.

Castagno, A. P., T. J. W. Wagner, M. R. Cape, C. W. Lester, E. Bailey, C. Alves-de-Souza, R.A. York, and A. H. Fleming, 2023: Increased sea ice melt as a driver of enhanced Arctic phytoplankton blooming. Glob. Change Biol., 29(17), 5087-5098, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16815.

Comiso, J. C., 2015: Variability and trends of the global sea ice cover and sea level: Effects on physicochemical parameters. Climate Change and Marine and Freshwater Toxins, L. M. Botana, M. C. Lauzao, and N. Vilarino, Eds., De Gruyter, Berlin, Germany, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110333596-003.

Comiso, J. C., W. N. Meier, and R. Gersten, 2017: Variability and trends in the Arctic Sea ice cover: Results from different techniques. J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 6883-6900, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC012768.

Frey, K. E., J. C. Comiso, L. W. Cooper, C. Garcia, J. M. Grebmeier, and L. V. Stock, 2023b: Arctic ocean primary productivity: The response of marine algae to climate warming and sea ice decline. Arctic Report Card 2023, R. L. Thoman, T. A. Moon, and M. L. Druckenmiller, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/nb05-8w13.

Frey, K. E., J. C. Comiso, L. V. Stock, L. N. C. Young, L. W. Cooper, and J. M. Grebmeier, 2023a: A comprehensive satellite-based assessment across the Pacific Arctic Distributed Biological Observatory shows widespread late-season sea surface warming and sea ice declines with significant influences on primary productivity. PLoS ONE, 18(7), e0287960, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287960.

Frey, K. E., L. V. Stock, C. Garcia, L. W. Cooper, and J. M. Grebmeier, 2024: Arctic ocean primary productivity: The response of marine algae to climate warming and sea ice decline. Arctic Report Card 2024, T. A. Moon, M. L. Druckenmiller, and R. L. Thoman, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/9ex0-t425.

Huntington, H. P., and Coauthors, 2022: Societal implications of a changing Arctic Ocean. Ambio, 51, 298-306, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-021-01601-2.

Koch, C. W., and Coauthors, 2023: Year-round utilization of sea ice-associated carbon in Arctic ecosystems. Nat. Commun., 14, 1964, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37612-8.

Lewis, K. M., and K. R. Arrigo, 2020: Ocean color algorithms for estimating chlorophyll a, CDOM absorption, and particle backscattering in the Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res.- Oceans, 125, e2019JC015706, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015706.

Li, W. K., F. A. McLaughlin, C. Lovejoy, and E. C. Carmack, 2009: Smallest algae thrive as the Arctic Ocean freshens. Science, 326, 539-539, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1179798.

Mathew, S., J. -K. Hong, J. -H. Kim, M. Chen, and J. Hur, 2025: Terrestrial inputs of nutrients and dissolved organic carbon to the Arctic Ocean and their influence on primary production. Mar. Environ. Res., 209, 107182, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2025.107182.

Rantanen, M., A. Y. Karpechko, A. Lipponen, K. Nordling, O. Hyvärinen, K. Ruosteenoja, T. Vihma, and A. Laaksonen, 2022: The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979. Commun. Earth Environ., 3, 168, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3.

Zoffoli, M. L., and Coauthors, 2025: CIAO: A machine-learning algorithm for mapping Arctic Ocean Chlorophyll-a from space. Sci. Remote Sens., 11, 100212, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srs.2025.100212.

Tundra Greenness

Assmann, J. J., C. Akandil, E. Plekhanova, A. Le Moigne, S. V. Karsanaev, T. C. Maximov, and G. Schaepman-Strub, 2025: High variation in the surface extent of freshwater ponds creates dynamic Arctic tundra landscapes in the lowlands of Eastern Siberia. Environ. Res. Lett., 20, 114041, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae0fb1.

Bartsch, A., and Coauthors, 2025: Similarities between sea ice area variations and satellite-derived terrestrial biosphere and cryosphere parameters across the Arctic. Cryosphere, 19(10), 4929-4967, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-4929-2025.

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Crawford, C. J., and Coauthors, 2023: The 50-year Landsat collection 2 archive. Sci. Remote Sens., 8, 100103, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srs.2023.100103.

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Frost, G. V., and Coauthors, 2025: The changing face of the Arctic: four decades of greening and implications for tundra ecosystems. Front. Environ. Sci., 13, 1525574, https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1525574.

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Glaciers and Ice Caps Outside Greenland

Ballinger, T. J., and Coauthors, 2024: Surface air temperature. Arctic Report Card 2024, T. A. Moon, M. L. Druckenmiller, and R. L. Thoman, Eds., https://doi.org/10.25923/mjhx-3j40.

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Hugonnet, R., and Coauthors, 2021: Accelerated global glacier mass loss in the early twenty-first century. Nature, 592, 726-731, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03436-z.

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Kienholz, C., and Coauthors, 2020: Deglacierization of a marginal basin and implications for outburst floods, Mendenhall Glacier, Alaska. Front. Earth Sci., 8, 137, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00137.

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Atlantification of the Arctic Ocean

Belter, H. J., and Coauthors, 2021: Interannual variability in Transpolar Drift summer sea ice thickness and potential impact of Atlantification. Cryosphere, 15(6), 2575-2591, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2575-2021.

Bluhm, B. A., and Coauthors, 2020: The Pan-Arctic continental slope: Sharp gradients of physical processes affect pelagic and benthic ecosystems. Front. Mar. Sci., 7, 544386, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.544386.

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Husson, B., and Coauthors, 2024: Borealization impacts shelf ecosystems across the Arctic. Front. Environ. Sci., 12, 1481420, https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1481420.

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Karlson, B., and Coauthors, 2021: Harmful algal blooms and their effects in coastal seas of Northern Europe. Harmful Algae, 102, 101989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2021.101989.

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Nishino, S., and Coauthors, 2023: Atlantic-origin water extension into the Pacific Arctic induced an anomalous biogeochemical event. Nat. Commun., 14, 6235, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41960-w.

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Polyakov, I. V., A. V. Pnyushkov, and L. A. Timokhov, 2012: Warming of the intermediate Atlantic Water of the Arctic Ocean in the 2000s. J. Climate, 25(23), 8362-8370, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00266.1.

Polyakov, I. V., and Coauthors, 2020: Intensification of near-surface currents and shear in the Eastern Arctic Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett., 47(16), e2020GL089469, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089469.

Polyakov, I. V., R. B. Ingvaldsen, A. V. Pnyushkov, U. S. Bhatt, J. A. Francis, M. Janout, R. Kwok, and Ø. Skagseth, 2023: Fluctuating Atlantic inflows modulate Arctic Atlantification. Science, 381(6661), 972-979, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adh5158.

Polyakov, I. V., and Coauthors, 2025: Atlantification advances into the Amerasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Sci. Adv., 11(8), eadq7580, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adq7580.

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Warming Waters and Borealization: Restructuring Ecosystem Dynamics in the Northern Bering and Chukchi Seas, 2002–2022

Curchitser, E. N., H. P. Batchelder, D. B. Haidvogel, J. Fiechter, and J. Runge, 2013: Advances in physical, biological, and coupled ocean models during the US GLOBEC program. Oceanography, 26(4), 52-67, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2013.75.

Danielson, S. L., and Coauthors, 2020: Oceanic routing of wind-sourced energy along the Arctic continental shelves. Front. Mar. Sci., 7, 509, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00509.

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Kimmel, D. G., L. B. Eisner, and A. I. Pinchuk, 2023: The northern Bering Sea zooplankton community response to variability in sea ice: Evidence from a series of warm and cold periods. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 705, 21-42, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps14237.

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Markowitz, E. H., E. J. Dawson, S. N. Wassermann, C. B. Anderson, S. K. Rohan, N. E. Charriere, and D. E. Stevenson, 2024: Results of the 2023 eastern and northern Bering Sea continental shelf bottom trawl survey of groundfish and invertebrate fauna. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-AFSC-487, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 242 pp., https://doi.org/10.25923/2mry-yx09.

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Mordy, C. W., and Coauthors, 2023: Progress of Fisheries-Oceanography Coordinated Investigations in the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Passes. Oceanography, 36(2-3), 94-100, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2023.218.

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Weaving the Seen and Unseen: Stewarding the Arctic Means Sustaining Indigenous Monitoring

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Rusting Rivers: Assessing the Causes and Consequences in Alaska and Across the Arctic

Barker, A. J., T. D. Sullivan, W. B. Baxter, R. A. Barbato, S. Gallaher, G. E. Patton, J. P. Smith, and T. A. Douglas, 2023: Iron oxidation-reduction processes in warming permafrost soils and surface waters expose a seasonally rusting Arctic watershed. ACS Earth Space Chem., 7(8), 1479-1495, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.2c00367.

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Kemeny, P. C., and Coauthors, 2023: Arctic permafrost thawing enhances sulfide oxidation. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 37(11), e2022GB007644, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GB007644.

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